Table 4 Costs and benefits to be considered in SM policies

Attitudinal and behavioural measures (car sharing, car pooling, journey planning, DRTS)

(PT provision, subsidies to the policies)

reduction of peaks, reduction in PT supply

transport cost savings, discomfort of sharing/pooling

possibly less congestion

no

Infrastructure measure

investment, running costs

(reduction of PT costs)

(land price variations, net of double counting)

travel time, frequency, tolls and fares. In some cases: generated demand

all external costs of demand shifted from private to public transport

no

sub-case: cycle routes, pedestrian areas

(investment)

longer travel time, car cost savings, more health

all external costs of demand shifted from private to cycling

no

Management of the infrastructure

(investment)

(depends on the policy, but marginal)

variation of travel time for car and PT users, fares.

(modal shift). Different use of space

yes/no

sub-case: traffic management, ITS

(investment)

longer/shorter travel time

existing: effect on safety, pollution and congestion. But possible modal shift to private

no

sub-case: restrictions (segregate lanes, car free areas, …)

(investment)

reduction in PT cost

longer (for car users)/shorter (for PT users) travel time

modal shift: safety, pollution and congestion

yes

sub case: parking control & pricing

Fares

fares, (less parking time)

modal shift & existing: safety, pollution and congestion

yes

Information provision

(investment, running costs)

time benefits for better routing

(safety and congestion)

no

Pricing

(investment, running costs, more PT)

tolls and fares; (more efficient PT provision)

tolls and fares, more/less parking space available, increase in generalised cost for those moved to PT

modal shift: safety, pollution and congestion. (Increase of sprawl). (More city space)

yes

sub case: fare segmentation

(variation of subsidies to cover the PT financial gap)

(variation of subsidies to cover the PT financial gap)

existing and new users surplus: positive if subsidies, zero if perfect price discrimination.

(in case of modal shift only)

no

Land use measures

(support investment)

(reduction of PT costs)

modify the costs and revenues of land developers

modification of city use in the long run

less congestion and other externalities in the long run

yes/no