Table 5 Summary of signal processing methods for pothole detection and roughness index estimation

UNIquaALroad[78, 79]

high-energy events

✔

✔

✔

✔

Smart patrolling [80]

filter + DTW (adaptive)

✔

✔

✔

✔

Smart Probe Car [81]

anomaly index heuristic (adaptive AI)

✔

✔

✔

✔

✔

[72]

Z-acc, Gaussian model

✔

✔

[73]

Z-thresh, G-zero combined

✔

✔

✔

[74]

Fuzzy logic

✔

✔

[75, 76]

time-frequency analysis

✔

✔

[77]

Greedy heuristic algorithm

✔

✔

✔

✔

[90]

Maximum Likelihood-based

✔

✔

RCM-TAGPS [82, 83]

PSD + empirical formula

IRI

✔

[84]

RMS acceleration

IRI

✔

[85]

RMS acceleration

IRI

✔

STAMPER [86]

filter + IRI

IRI

✔

[87, 88]

Filter + FFT

IRI

✔

IPEM [89]

Inverse pseudo-excitation method

IRI

✔

[60]

IRI-proxy

✔

IRI-proxy

✔

✔

✔

SmartRoadSense

[91, 92]

PSD + Linear Predictive Coding

Relative

✔

✔

✔

✔

[93]

Correlation-Averaging Algorithm

✔

✔

✔

✔

✔

RIF [95,96,97,98,99,100,101]

RIF-transform, TWIT

✔

New

✔

✔

✔