Table 1 Different models of traffic congestion
From: Quantifying the phantom jam externality: the case of an Autobahn section in Germany
| Model | Main/seminal authors | Source of externality | Economic policy |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bottleneck | [11] | demand exceeds bottleneck capacity | toll to change departure times |
| Bathtub | [16, 19] | traffic jam at one point spreads into large area | toll to reduce inflow in congested area |
| Speed-flow | [20–22] | other drivers induce speed reduction | toll to reduce number of vehicles |
| Phantom jam | [15, 23] | unspecified driving errors result in stochastic traffic flow break down | toll to reduce number of vehicles and change departure times |