Table 2 Driver support systems for elderly drivers (Sources: European Commission [51]; Fairchild et al. [53])

 Using lighting technology, sensor networks (and satellite navigation systems in the future), ALC/AFS can adjust the direction, width and depth of the headlamps’ light automatically in reaction to the surroundings, type of road, steering wheel angle, speed and movement of the vehicle.

Increase visibility at night time and bad weather; offer a better view of the road ahead, including other vehicles and obstacles in the distance.

 LDW is a forward-looking and vision-based system using algorithms to interpret video images to estimate the direction and lateral position and velocity of the vehicle and lane width and road curvature.

Alert the driver to drive within the lane when deviation occurs.

 Intersection assistant monitors the traffic from the right, road signs and the traffic signals at the intersections. Via a wireless communication link, it provides the driver with the status of the traffic lights and a suggested speed to allow him/her to pass the intersections safely.

Alert the driver to stop for the traffic from the right or offer speed suggestions according to the road signs/traffic signals, and then warn the driver if he/she performs inappropriately.

 LCA or BSD continuously monitors the rear blind spots on both sides of the vehicle.

Warn the driver visually/audibly to avoid overtaking in critical situations.

 Using radar sensors or video image processing or a combination of them, OCW monitors the area in front of the vehicle. OCW is proactive in terms of providing full braking force, arming airbags or tightening the seatbelt when needed.

Warn the driver when vehicles, cyclists, pedestrians or other obstacles on the road ahead are detected; prepare the vehicle for an imminent collision proactively to avoid the collision and/or mitigate the severity.

 Using satellite navigation technology, sensor technology, a road side beacon system and a central control system, ISA constantly monitors vehicles and the local speed limit on a road. ISA can be configured in two ways: advisory ISA and voluntary ISA.

Help the driver maintain a safe speed by alerting the driver (advisory ISA) or decelerating automatically in cooperation with traffic management systems (voluntary ISA) when the speed limit for a given road is exceeded.

 EBS can activate the maximum braking power immediately and is triggered when the driver performs fast and hard braking.

Take over the activity from the driver to avoid an accident or decrease vehicle speed at the moment of collision in order to reduce its seriousness.

 Using a long range radar sensor, a signal processor and longitudinal control of the vehicle, ACC constantly monitors the speed of the vehicle and the distance to the vehicle ahead. It will slow down the vehicle when needed and accelerate automatically to the pre-selected speed whilst maintaining the correct distance to the vehicle ahead without requiring any action from the driver.

Take over the activity from the driver to keep a safe distance from the vehicle ahead and avoid collision. The driver can override the system at any time.