Table 3 Techniques considered for each stage in the chain

Electricity

Wind turbines; Solar panels on roofs, on land (solar farms), infrastructure or water bodies

Electricity grid, system batteries, possible storage in other form (e.g. H₂)

Charging points

Battery with electric motor

Hydrogen

Electricity

Electrolysis using renewable electricity (mix of solar and wind)

Transport can take place either via tube (gaseous under high pressure) of via ship (cryogenic H₂ or in the form of ammonia). Distribution by pipeline, road tanker or by ship

Gas fuelling under pressure (incl. compression); purification

Fuel cell + (small) battery

+ electrical motor;

Modified ICE

Hydrogen

Natural gas and bio-methane

SMR based on natural gas with 90% CCS and 10% biomethane

Synfuels: FT-liquids

Hydrogen

and CO₂

FT plant

Identical to current

Identical to current

Identical to current

Synfuels: ammonia

Hydrogen

and nitrogen

Ammonia plant

Existing fuel transport, storage and distribution infrastructure can be adapted to make it suitable for ammonia

Adapted: ammonia has to be pressurised or cooled to liquefy it.

Adapted ICE

Synfuels: methanol

Hydrogen

and CO₂

Methanol plant

Conventional transport, storage and distribution infrastructure can be adapted to make it suitable for methanol

Adapted. Due to the low dew point of methanol, toxic methanol vapours can easily occur, which need to be avoided

Adapted ICE

Biofuel: bio- FT-liquids

Energy crops or residues

Bio-FT plant

Identical to current

Identical to current

Identical to current

Biofuel: bioethanol

Energy crops or residues

Ethanol plant

Conventional transport, storage and distribution infrastructure can be adapted to make it suitable for bioethanol

Identical to current

Adapted ICE